Kent S. Ma
English Argument
December 8, 1995
Minority children comparing with the White children often show lower performance in school and on tests of academic achievement ( Ogbu, 287 ). Many explanations have been given for the relatively low school performance of minorities such as biogenetic factors, curriculums, and cultural and language differences. However, none of them explain the differences between the academic performances among minority groups themselves. The forces that affect the academic performances of most minority children are not limited to society and schools but forces from minority communities, as well. Minority Groups and School Performance
A major factor of the community forces would be the groups' "histories and self perceptions" ( Ogbu, 290 ). Immigrant or voluntary minorities are those who moved voluntarily to the United States because they believed this would result in more economic well-being, better opportunities and/or more freedom. These groups are for example Chinese and Punjabi immigrants. Even though they may experience subordination, the positive expectations they bring with them influence their perceptions of U.S. society and schools. Voluntary minorities are generally more optimistic about the future than the involuntary minorities. The percentage of those who said that the future would be good were African Americans 60%, Mexican Americans 65%, and Chinese Americans 91% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994,7 ). Their children don't usually experience persistent problems in social adjustment and academic achievement ( Ogbu, 288 ). In these communities, social, peer, and psychological pressures encourage them to have academic performances better than average. Non-immigrant or involuntary minorities are those that are a part of the United States society due to slavery or colonization rather than by choice. These groups, for example, include African Americans, Mexican Americans, Native Americans, and Native Hawaiians. The social and psychological pressures among these communities tend to discourage academic success.
Voluntary minorities, since they choose to come the United States, think of the hardship they encounter as temporary problems. They tend to believe they will be able to overcome these problems through education and hard work without losing their minority-group identity. They see their cultural and language barriers in school and in society as barriers to be overcome in order to achieve their immigration goals, as a result, they make efforts to overcome these barriers. They have more faith in education and thinks that knowledge gained from books is more important for survival compare to involuntary minorities: AA 46%, MA 67%, and CA 63% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 9 ). Children are taught to do their best in school and hold themselves accountable for their academic performance in school. As a result, voluntary minorities comparing with the involuntary minorities have both the highest school attendance in 1989-1990 at the senior high and the junior high but also the highest class attendance ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 14 ). When asked how often they do homework, higher percentages of Chinese Americans report that they do homework five or six days or everyday in a week: AA 52%, MA 52%, and CA 79% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 14 ).
Involuntary minorities, on the other hand, because they do not have another homeland to compare to, compare their chances of success with the dominant White group and conclude that they are worse off because of their minority status. They often attribute their economic and other difficulties to "institutionalized discrimination" which cannot be eliminated by hard work and education alone ( Ogbu, 291 ). The involuntary minorities show less faith in education and ability in improving changes for success: AA 53%, MA 58%, and CA 65% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 8). They tend to distrust schools and White people and believe that crossing cultural and language boundaries will result in a loss of minority-group social identity. The percentage reporting that White Americans deprived them of their languages and cultures was higher among the involuntary minorities: AA 51%, MA 20%, and CA 18% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 7). They see their cultural and language barriers in school as a group identity to be maintained and therefore avoid change and often demand curricula in schools compatible with their identities. They would make little or no efforts in crossing the cultural and language boundaries ( Ogbu, 290 ). School records also show that involuntary minorities have extremely high rates of suspension for violation of school rules than voluntary minorities: AA 84%, MA 7%, and CA 2% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 10).
When coming to routes to success, African Americans also report a greater faith in experience, common sense, and street knowledge when comparing with Mexican Americans and Chinese Americans: AA 46%, MA 24%, and CA 28% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 8 ). African Americans has about the same percentage of faith in experience, common sense, and street knowledge as in education for survival: AA 46%, 67%, and CA 63% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 9). When asked which area they want fame, involuntary minorities choose sports and entertainment more often than Chinese Americans: AA 35%, MA 28%, and CA 15% ( Ogbu and Simons 1994, 9). Since that the involuntary minorities value both education and experience, common sense, and street knowledge about the same, they view sports and entertainment which don't depend on academic education as alternative ways to success.
Minority groups often face similar barriers in school such as inferior curriculum, unfair treatment, and social and language barriers as well as social and economic barriers in the society. However, voluntary minorities compare to involuntary minorities are more able to adjust socially and do well academically. Most explanation of the literacy problems among minorities focus more on within the school, classroom, or family. But, community forces such as the groups "histories and self perceptions" influence their efforts in striving towards academic success. Some minority groups success better than others who face similar difficulties in schools and some individual member of involuntary minorities do well in school because of community forces ( Ogbu, 292 ). Different minority groups generally have different percentage of educational strategies which lead to success. Although, both types of minorities do have success-enhancing strategies, groups with higher percentage of educational strategies have more choices that leads to success. Voluntary minorities generally have more educational strategies that enhance school success and involuntary minorities generally have less ( Ogbu, 292 ). Within each minority group, individuals who choose those success-enhancing strategies succeed ( Ogbu, 292 ). As a result, some individuals in both types of minorities succeed and some do not.
Kent S. Ma is a freshman at Carnegie Mellon, in the School of Computer Science. His email address is < ksm+@andrew.cmu.edu >Click here to return to the class' home page.