In order to build upon something, a strong foundation must be established. If a building's first floor is weak, there is no chance of adding other stories on top of it. This also holds true for learning. If a child's introduction to literacy starts off poorly, the chance for success is relatively slim. Several items affect a child's introduction to literacy. One study, "School Readiness and Children's Developmental Status," done by Nicolas Zill, identified five factors that are considered harmful to a child's literacy development: 1) the mother has less than a high school education; 2) the family financial income is below the poverty line; 3) the mother's primary language is something other than English; 4) the mother was unmarried at the time of the child's birth; 5) only one parent is present in the home (Zill, Collins, West, Hausken, 2). These factors were found to be connected with fewer accomplishments and more problems in children when they started school (Zill et al, 2). Another study, done by Lisa M. Lauer, found that "....the parent is the most influential teacher ..."(Lauer, 10), and that "Lack of parental education....had negatively influenced the development of these (the children in the study) children..." (Lauer, 11). "Preschool Contributions to Early Language and Literacy Development," a study done by David Dickinson, and Miriam Smith, affirm "Children acquire considerable literacy-related knowledge during the preschool years (Sulsby & Teale) and enrollment in preschool programs contribute to more favorable academic and life history outcomes for children from low income homes."

In the introduction to "Parent Child Bookreading and Parent Helping Strategies," the author, Mary Ann Evans, comments on the effects of parent-child reading. "..there is a substantial body of research showing a positive relationship between children being read to by their parents in the preschool years and later literacy development" (Evans, Baraball, 1).

Evans then states that reading to a child provides numerous benefits, such as: 1. a good basis for later academic learning; 2. enhanced attention span; 3. increased motivation; 4. better attitude towards books.

PART ONE : Effects of the Parents and Financial Situation

The U.S. Department of Education conducted a study on three to five year olds

who have not yet entered kindergarten. The results of this study were to be used to help schools respond to the "diversity in the backgrounds and educational needs of children entering school" (Zill et al, 2). The parents, (usually just the mother), were asked to comment on how well their child performed certain activities. These activities indicated emerging literacy and numerical skills, difficulty with physical activities, attention span and health problems (Zill et al, 2). The activities included: pretending to read stories, counting to twenty, holding a pencil, buttoning clothes. Questions were asked to the parents regarding their child's health, any speech difficulties, restlessness and inattention. The children's' ability to perform a specific activity was not rated on different levels of performance, but instead, just whether or not the activity could be carried out.

The percentage of children displaying signs of emerging literacy and motor skills increased with age of the three to five year old population, and within months of age in the four year old population (Zill et al, 2). A good example of this would be the writing activity. The number of children who could write their own name more than tripled between the ages of three and four (Zill et al, 2). The other activity that showed a great increase in the rate of accomplishment was recognizing letters of the alphabet. Developmental changes showed much smaller changes with increasing age. Although there were differences between the boys and girls in almost all activities, the percentage of difference was not large. Hispanic preschoolers were behind White and Black children in all activities, reported lower attention spans, and less than optimal health. Black children were slightly behind White children in all activities, and reportings on health and attention span levels were not as high.

Five family risk factors were examined and determined to be a major cause in a child's development: 1. the mother had less than a high school education; 2. family makes below the poverty line; 3. the mother's primary language is something other than English; 4. the mother was unmarried at the time of child's birth; 5. only one parent is present in the home (Zill et al, 3). Half of today's preschoolers deal with at least one of these problems (Zill et al, 3). Fifteen percent of them deal with three or more of the problems. "The risk factors are found to be associated with fewer accomplishments and more difficulties in children, even after other child and family characteristics are taken into account" (Zill, 3). Low maternal education and minority language status show to have the greatest effect on emerging literacy in preschoolers (Zill, 3). There was an increase of emerging literacy scores in children who attended any center-based preschool program, but preschool attendance was not found to effect behavioral or speech difficulties, or the child's health (Zill, 3).

The results of this study show that providing early education for children from low-socioeconomic circumstances greatly benefits the child, especially in literacy and numerical skills (Zill, 3). Early education does not seem to affect health, speech, or behavioral difficulties in preschoolers. The status of the mother has a great effect on the child's emerging literacy.

Lisa M. Lauer wrote a book compiling the results of a study done to determine the effects of parents on a child's emerging literacy. The study was conducted in a preschool center located in a small, southern, rural town in the United States. The town consists of mostly blue-collar industrial workers. Since the decline of the oil and gas industries in the 1980's, the unemployment rate has risen significantly. This led to a rapid growth in the number of at risk families needing services at the preschool level (Lauer, 8). The classroom studied, consisted of twenty students, one teacher, and one teacher's assistant. The teacher had earned educational degrees with certification in early childhood education (Lauer, 8). "The preschool program was established to promote the social, emotional, physical, language, and cognitive skills of below poverty students" (Lauer, 9).

The teacher was viewed as an extension of the child's home role models. Because of this, the teacher worked closely with the parents. "Recognizing that the parent is the most influential teacher, the teacher worked closely with the child's families by making visits periodically to their homes and providing workshops for parents" (Lauer, 10).

"Lack of parental education, teen-age pregnancies, single-parent homes with absent fathers, little or no job opportunities,....had negatively influenced the development of these children..." (Lauer, 11). These children's home settings were not conducive to learning at all. Parent's spent little, if any, time reading with their children (Lauer, 11). The children had little, if any, access to books (Lauer, 11). Parents were found not only to be lacking education, but also parenting skills, learning skills, and awareness of their impact as role models (Lauer, 12) "Students entering the preschool setting were lacking in literacy skills and experiences" (Lauer, 12). Parents had "very little time, limited resources, and limited or no means of transportation to acquire books to read with their children" (Lauer, 14). All children in this study came from families whose financial income was below the poverty line. Only three out of twenty children came from families with both a mother and a father living in the home. Half of the parents had not completed their high school education. "Lack of parental education combined with a lack of literacy experiences denies children the literacy models in the home necessary for their emerging literacy development. Young children require the support of their families to be successful in school. When that support is denied and/or ignored, for whatever reason, the child cannot be as successful as those children whose parents are supportive. Although parents are concerned about the welfare of their children, they are not aware of their responsibilities as role models on the development of their children" (Lauer, 15).

After discussing the studies done by Zill and Lauer, it seems apparent that children's emerging literacy skills are effected by their parent's behavior. I included the financial aspect because, both studies mentioned that the children were from poor families. I believe that the financial situation indirectly has a great influence on a child's emerging literacy. Many of the factors involving parents, that have a negative effect on the children, are most frequently found in poorer families. Lack of education can almost be directly linked to less money. Lack of book and other reading materials can almost directly be linked to lack of money. Families with little money, most often have both parents working, and in a single parent home, the parent is most often working. Because of this, the parents have little time to devote to their children.

PART TWO: Effects of Early Education

This study was part of the Home-School Study of Language and Literacy Development. All children in this study were eligible for Head Start or comparable programs. (It should be noted that the financial situations of the children's families were also commented on in this study. To be eligible for Head Start programs, the financial income must be under a certain level.) Approximately eighty families participated in this study. Four factors were taken into account to decide the effects of preschool classrooms on emerging literacy skills: 1. the children's pre-existing discourse skills; 2. routine teacher-child discourse; 3. the curriculum; 4. teachers' academic beliefs (Charlesworth et al.) (Dickinson, 3). Teachers were "interviewed to learn their attitudes about preschool education, beliefs about language and literacy development, and their overall classroom curriculum and approach to structuring the day" (Dickinson, 3). The children were visited in their classrooms. "Using tape recorders carried in backpacks worn by the target child, we (researchers) recorded spontaneous conversation...attempting to record each major classroom activity type..." (Dickinson, 3).

The study found that, "Children acquire considerable literacy-related knowledge during the preschool years (Sulsby & Teale) and enrollment in preschool programs contribute to more favorable academic and life history outcomes for children from low-income homes" (Dickinson, 2). "...early preschool experiences may, in part, have beneficial effects because they provide children experiences that support growth of emerging literacy-related knowledge and skills (Dickinson, 2). This shows that children who partake in preschool will encounter activities that would not otherwise be introduced to them. To conclude, researchers found "significant relationships between preschool experiences and a range of emergent literacy skills at the end of kindergarten" (Dickinson, 8).