One of the concerns in the literacy and education field, is the problematic issue of present differences in the ways males and females regard computers. Although their validity is still questionable, most researchers agree in regards to their validity, but disagree as to their origins and causes. The studies analyzed in this discusses the differences in colleges, secondary schools and elementary schools. The significance of this problem is very important , because of its economic and social consequences.
Many of the recent studies regarding computer oriented careers have shown a significant underrepresentation of women educators in the computer science tenure track. During this decade, women have received only 34% of the computer science bachelor's degrees and 27% of the master's degrees ( Shashaani; p. 169). In addition, women only received 10- 14% of the Ph.D. (Shashaani p. 169), and in the computer science departments offering Ph.D. programs, women only represent 6.5% of the faculty; About 1/3 of these departments do not have any women present in their faculty (Shashaani p. 169). These statistics reflect women's roles in the computer industry. The significance of such gender differences is quite important for economic and social reasons.
These gender differences in the field of computer literacy signify present economical and social imbalance. Women, overall make up half the work force, whereas in the advanced computer literacy field, women compose only a small amount of that specific labor force (Shashaani p. 169). " A society that believes technological understanding is primarily for males automatically excludes a large segment of the population from contributing more effectively to society's advancement, and a valuable resource for the economy is lost" (Shashaani p. 169). To further economic and social progress in regards to gender equality, these gender differences must be removed. Many studies have been conducted to examine the validity of these differences.
Studies range from post secondary school statistics to elementary school statistics. Although many of the studies suggest that there are no differences in computer skills and in computer attitudes between male and female students, most of the studies clearly suggest significant differences. " Measuring Attitude Toward Computers Among Undergraduate College Students: The Affective Domain", a study conducted by Leslie J. Francis, and "Gender Differences in Computer Experience, Skills, and Attitudes Among Incoming College Students," a study conducted by Janet Moharan-Martin, Alan Olinsky, and Phyllis Schumacher, both contain statistical information regarding computer attitude differences between the genders in a post secondary institution. "Gender-Based Differences in Attitudes Towards Computers", a study conducted by Lily Shashaani, inspects the differences in computer attitudes, experience, skill level, and usage between the genders at a secondary school level. Studies, such as "The Relationship of Learning, Behavior, and Cognitive Style in Hypermedia-Based Instruction: Implication for Design of HBI", by Herman G. Weller, Judi Repman, and Gene E. Rooze, and "Gender-Related Effects of Computer and Information Literacy Education", by Monique Volan, analyze gender differences at an elementary school setting. It is necessary to examine gender differences at all education levels so as to understand the causes and origins of this inequality.
Leslie J. Francis, in her essay, "Measuring Attitude Toward Computers Among Undergraduate College Students: The Affective Domain", examines the attitudes towards computers at a college setting, specifically noting differences between the sexes. This survey, which was conducted in Wales College in 1991, was aimed at the incoming freshman class (Francis; p. 252). In this study, Francis found no significant changes between the genders in regards to computer attitudes (Francis; p. 253). Although this study was consistent with other studies, it contradicted most studies which report that males have a more positive attitude towards computers than females. Other studies, which are more thorough suggest otherwise.
"Gender Differences in Computer Experience, Skills, and Attitudes Among Incoming College Students," by Janet Moharan-Martin, Alan Olinsky, and Phyllis Schumacher, which was generated at the same period as Francis' study, produced different conclusions regarding the gender differences. This study which included over 650 students, took place in Bryant College, and showed noticeable differences between males and females at experience and skill level, in attitudes towards computers, and at the types of usage of computers (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; pg. 1-2).
Moharan-Martin, Olinsky, and Schumacher, found many important differences regarding experience and skill level. They discovered that males generally completed more computer courses, and have stronger programming experience (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 1). According to their results, it was more likely for males to be able to use PASCAL programs and BASIC programs then females (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p 3). Although females had a higher level of typing skills ( keyboarding skills) than men, overall males were significantly more experienced, when gender differences were present (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 3). There were however, no differences in regards to ever using a computer (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 3). In this study, it is clear that the males generally had higher skill level as well as experience than females.
Many significant differences are also present when comparing computer attitudes between the genders. "Males have been found to have more positive attitude towards computers than females, while females are more likely to be disinterested in, dislike, or fear computers" (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 1). In certain aspects, women had a more positive attitude towards computers; females believed, more than males, that computers will assist them more with jobs, and with getting jobs (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 6). It was also noted that women agreed that computers are important tools in the industry and modern business world, whereas males were more likely associate computers with importance only in the computer related field (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 6). However, males were more likely to agree that it is important to own a computer (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 6). These differences in attitude towards computers are quite significant; each sex perceives computers in its own regards.
The conclusions of this particular study also point out that females find a different type of usage of computers than males. It is more likely for males to voluntarily use the computer, to take a computer course selectively, to spend more overall time on the computer, to use the computer for more purposes, and to have attended a computer camp (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 1). Surprisingly though, males were not more likely, than women, to have used a computer at home at a significant level (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher p. 3). It is apparent that usage type is significantly different between the genders.
These finding, which clearly shows the difference in attitudes, experience/skills, and usage, according to the authors, signify two important indications. The first indication is that computers can not be viewed as one-dimensional. Computer experience and skills vary and therefore should be viewed as "multidimensional" (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p. 7). The second indication is since there are present gender differences in regards to experience/skills, these gender differences may influence negatively female students' motivation and accomplishments (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p 7). The issue of females tending to have a negative attitude towards computers, could lead to them avoiding computer use when optional (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p 1). These differences " suggest that perhaps different kinds of assistance will be necessary in working with male and female students" (Morahan- Martin, Olinsky, Schumacher; p 7). It is clear that students enter college having gender differences already implemented in computer literacy and use. An analysis of the different ways males and females regard computers in a secondary school setting will support this notion.
Lily Shashaani, in "Gender Differences in Attitudes Towards Computers", examines the male and female attitudes towards computers at a secondary school level. Shashaani analyzes computer attitude differences and the research background before presenting the "Socialization Theory". Socialization is "the acquisition of culture and ability through participation in group life in order to regulate social interaction" (Shashaani; p 171). Before examining past studies that attempt to explain the reason for these differences, Shashaani examines the validity of present gender differences in computer attitudes between the genders.
Shashaani found many differences among high-school students regarding different perceptions towards computers between the sexes. In this study, generally "boys showed greater enthusiasm for becoming familiar with computers", while girls tended to have a negative attitude towards computers (Shashaani; p 174). Shashaani found the same general differences in this secondary school setting as were found in a college setting by Moharan-Martin, Olinsky, and Schumacher, suggesting that completion of secondary school education does not bear a substantial influence on these differences. Shashaani examines the differences in self- confidence regarding computers between males and females, and the stereotyping of genders in relation to computers and technology.
There are clear signs of gender differences in secondary school in regards to confidence in using computers. It was found that boys tend to feel confident and comfortable around computers (Shashaani; p 174). Girls tend to fear using computers and feel nervous and uncomfortable around computers (Shashaani; p 176). " Low confidence in learning and using computers deters an individual from participating in computing" (Shashaani; p 176). By removing the cause for lack of confidence in computer use among girls, improvement in removing the inequality in the computer field can be made.
Examining stereotyping is significant because " there is an association between an individual's vocational preference and his or her acceptance of occupational stereotypes" (Shashaani; p 176). According to the survey by Shashaani, girls were determined that there should be equality in computer activities between the sexes (Shashaani; p 176). Girls were also more determined than boys that women are not inferior in computing and engineering skills (Shashaani; p 176). It is clear from this survey that the dominant perception among males in a secondary school setting is that computer activity is regarded as masculine. Such stereotypes suggest that the perception of men being more skilled in the technology field still persists. The significance of this view is that still there are many who would hire men over women for computer related vocations because of a higher regard of male competency in this field.
Differences in computer attitudes may be the main causes that separate females from males in regard to computers. Fear of computers, may deter females from further participation with computers (Shashaani; p 176). Negative stereotypes, such as the computer field being a man's field, also reduce female self- confidence in computer use (Shashaani; p176). These differences in computer attitudes need be removed in order to increase the female population in the computer field. To remove these differences, the causes and origins of these differences in attitudes must be found first.
Many studies, which have been conducted in pursuit of finding the causes of these gender differences, suggest a number possibilities as to why these differences exist. A study conducted by Hines, concludes that the cause is of a biological basis. He argues that "distinct hormonal levels and brain functioning are the major sources of sex differences in behavior and ability" (Shashaani; p 170-171). A similar study by Benbow and Stanley, from Johns Hopkins University, also base the causes on innate gender differences in mathematical abilities (Shashaani; p 171). These studies, which lack sufficient evidence to prove this biological inferiority in women, limit these differences to biological and environmental reasons. "They do not take into consideration the individual attitudes, interests, beliefs, aspirations and the endless list of norms and values which are the products of cultural, environmental, social, and historical processes" (Shashaani; p 171). The process of socialization suggests a non-biological theory to explain these gender differences.
Socialization, "the acquisition of culture and ability through participation in group life in order to regulate social interaction" (Shashaani; p 171), attempts to explain these sex differences. According to the theory of socialization, the family is the primary exposure that an individual receives, shaping his beliefs, basic attitude, sex role identity, and self image (Shashaani; p 171). This identity is then shaped further by the school system, "an environment that formally transmits society's basic culture to children and provides them with values, feelings, and norms beyond their families" (Shashaani; p 171). The process of socialization clearly has a significant impact on sex differences, and therefore must be examined further.
Socialization is the main influence on gender differences regarding behavior. It assigns male and females different role identities, which include different values and tasks (Shashaani; p 176). Socialization of gender role may very well be the cause for low self confidence and low expectations among women(Shashaani; p 178). Eccles presents a thorough analysis over the issue of socialization in regards to the difference in gender roles.
According to Eccles, men and women make decisions based on "perceived task value", a function of sex role identity shaped by socialization ( Eccles in Shashaani; p 171). Eccles model is " the assumption that an individual's educational plan is influenced primarily by his or her expectation for success and, secondly by subjective task value- the value that one attaches to various educational options (Eccles in Shashaani; p 178). "Since men and women are socialized differently, sex differences in expectation and subjective value are likely to lead males and females to make different educational choices" (Eccles in Shashaani; p 178). This model suggests that females decide to disassociate from computers, due to gender-role socialization, which is influenced by parents, teachers, and school counselors (Shashaani; p 171).
Parents, teachers, peers, and school counselors, have significant influence over the gender roles of students, by reinforcing gender-related beliefs and attitudes (Shashaani; p 176). According to Spenner and Featherman, "the encouragement of one's parents and the plans of one's peers appear to shape ambitions more directly and with greater impact than any other source" (Spenner and Featherman in Shashaani; p 177). These values reach children through several manners. Parents may reinforce these gender values by suggesting to their children which courses to select, based on the gender of the child (Shashaani; p 178). Parents also can influence these values by treating their children differently based on their sex; by giving their sons and daughters different opportunities, parents clearly influence the future of their children. (Shashaani; p 178). In Shashaani's study, there is clear statistical evidence that parents, teachers, and counselors affect the attitudes of students by treating males and females differently.
Differences in computer attitude and application, can be traced even at an elementary school level. Studies, such as "Gender Related Effects of Computer and Information Literacy Education" by Monique Volman, examines the behavioral differences in regards to computers in a classroom setting. "The Relationship of Learning, Behavior, and Cognitive Style in Hypermedia- Based Instruction: Implication for Design of HBI", by Herman G Weller, Judy Repman, and Gene Rooze, examines the differences in cognitive style behavior. Both these papers clearly show that these gender differences in regards to computer attitudes, are present even at a pre-secondary school setting. However these computer attitude differences increase at a secondary school setting.
According to Shashaani's study, many parents and teachers have different educational expectations of male students and female students (Shashaani; p 176). Boys are encouraged to take computer science courses and mathematical courses more than girls (Shashaani; p 177). Students who received encouragement from their parents, teachers, and school counselors, to take computer courses, tended to be more comfortable around computers (Shashaani; p 177). 22% of the parents believed that for their daughters, computer science is important to learn (Shashaani; p 178). Girls who believed that their father viewed computers as more suitable for males than females, tended to have significantly lower confidence in their computer abilities (Shashaani; p 178). From this study, it is clear that "female students, because of low confidence in their ability and lack of encouragement from their parents, teachers, and counselors, have lower expectations for success in computing and thus, are deterred from entering this field" (Shashaani; p 178-179).
It is clear that the present differences in computer attitudes between males and females are influenced by gender socialization. Students' decisions and attitudes towards computers are influenced primarily by parents and educators. Many parents and educators still encourage boys over girls to participate and succeed in computer activity. Instead these parents and educators should support and encourage the female students to use computers. These are several steps which could be introduced in order to decrease gender differences in regard to computer attitudes.
There are many ways we can solve this problem: Teachers could greatly increase the percentage of women in the computer field by encouraging female students to participate more in class; e.g. give presentations and lead coed groups. Schools should bring in female speakers who are successful in the computer field to motivate female students (Shashaani; p. 180). Parents should reward daughters for their computer achievements. Finally, it would be beneficial to create programs that would increase the job opportunities for females in the computer industry. By changing the computer job market into more gender balanced, the increase in the female population in this job market would change parents and educators perspectives and would motivate them to encourage females and males equally to participate and succeed in computers.
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